Did Religion Shape Politics in the 1980's Research Paper

Did Religion Shape Politics in the 1980's - Research Paper Example Examples of the churches existing in the 1960’s are Catholic and Protestant ones (Goff 316). By late 1970’s, other groups of faith started emerging, and it was evident that it would be the norm. People started taking their stand regarding leaders and their faith. Some leaders were identified according to their faith. Religion has been known as the social glue that binds the constituent elements of societies together; by doing so, it underwrites the social order (Djupe and Olson 114). When civilization comes in the picture, a person wants to know what makes his or her counterpart civilized. It is very simple when considering religion as a key factor. A civilized person has conviction in something, at least the person feels or thinks there is a reason behind everything happening in his or her life. The civilization of a person in a societal was based on the religion of the person apart from being able to read and write. Religion of a person is quite imperative to the person and to the society. Someone’s faith may be the key to having what he or she thinks is best in a societal setting. One can say religion is the engine of a number of things. Yes Response It is obvious that religion did shape politics in the 1980’s. The impact of religion on politics is what brought about civil religi on in America in early 1967. Civil religion in America was defined as an institutional collection of sacred beliefs about America as a nation. The civil religion also believed that there was a transcendent being called God. The citizens believed that God had laws and rules that governed them, and the fact that God was guiding and protecting the Americans. All the leaders believed in some faith including the Reagans although they never clearly showed their religion, they were known more as protagonists than religious individuals (Wilson and DiIulio 221). Majority of American leaders were identified with the particular faith they believed to be significant. As people became more enlightened about the civil religion in America, it was not referred as the civil religion anymore, it was known as the individual credence of a person. Religion played a noteworthy role in the early 1980’s. How can one explain the fact that every standing candidate wanted to be identified with a partic ular religion? It is so clear for fame or civilization. Religion, as much as it helped unite peoples, became a tool for hypocrites to hide their true colors. Politicians went to religious functions to be seen to support a particular faith. Some of the politicians did not even believe in God or any other superficial being. The politicians worshipped their social status and money (Peterson 121). When someone sees that he or she is sharing a church with a particular politician, it is quite understandable if the person would want to vote for that particular politician. Politicians employed religion to get power, to get people to trust their ideas and visions. Religion has been known to identify people that are civil from those that are not civil. It is normal for a politician to run for a particular seat in the pretence that he or she shares in a particular faith. When people saw politicians in their different churches, they believed they were the right people to lead their nation or st ate. There is no argument to this; it is not erroneous for people to trust such a person. Politicians learned about this fact, and they used it to their advantage on the expense of the unsuspecting

P2 Cycle in WDM Networks

P2 Cycle in WDM Networks P2-CYCLE IN WDM NETWORKS M.DILEEP Smt K .APARNA Abstract The Failure Independent Path Protection (FIPP) p cycle is efficient scheme. If failure occurs in pre configured cycle it is protection is reconfigured between those two nodes. In this paper we use Parasitic Protection Links (PPL). PPL’s are p-cycles with have attached links. PPL’s are used to protect the not only failure nodes but it connected to PPL to cycle. P2 cycle is known as p cycle with parasitic protection links. We address The P2 cycle in mesh networks can be analysed by using single link failure. We further propose two P2-cycle based heuristic algorithms, Strict Routing Protection (SRP) and Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), to address the dynamic traffic case. In the dynamic case, both SRP and FRP outperform FIPP p-cycle schemes in terms of blocking probability in most scenarios considered. In general, the P2-cycle protection scheme outperforms the p-cycle based in terms of capacity efficiencies which being slightly slower in terms of traffic recovery speed. Key words: Parasitic Protection Links (PPL), Strict Routing Protection (SRP), Flexible Routing Protection (FRP). I. INTRODUCTION Network survivability, defined as the Continuous operations of network are performed in case failure occurred in the network [3]. In generally optical networks carry information in terabytes. A failure in network causes lot of loss of data. Ring based networks can easily come due to their structure and fast recovery management. In ring based it takes 50-60ms but it gives capacity redundancy high. As mesh based networks emerged, more capacity efficient protection schemes were proposed which allow backup capacity sharing. These schemes are into three categories: link-based, segment-based and path-based [29]. Link-based protection schemes produce the fast traffic recovery speed but suffer from the worst resource efficiency . Best resource efficiency is achieved by path based protection scheme. Shared Backup Path Protection (SBPP) is one of the path protection schemes. it is high capacity. upon a network failure. It takes long time o recover from traffic. Segment based protection schemes lie between the link-based and path-based schemes, and offer a better combination of bandwidth efficiency and recovery time. Path-based protection schemes usually achieve the best resource efficiency. Among them, a path protection scheme, namely, Shared Backup Path Protection (SBPP), was shown to be the most capacity efficient protection scheme [8]. However, it suffers from long traffic recovery time upon a network failure. Segment based protection schemes lie between the link-based and path-based schemes, and offer a better combination of bandwidth efficiency and recovery time . The pre-configured protection cycle is known as p-cycle, combines the good qualities of mesh and ring based protection schemes and achieves the recovery speed of ring- based with the capacity efficiency of mesh protection. P-cycle has been proven theoretically to be the most efficient pre-configured protection scheme in terms of capacity efficiency and recovery speed . II. Dynamic Traffic Scenarios In dynamic traffic without the prior knowledge of arrival time of future requests. Due to the pre-configuration property of traditional p-cycles, it is extremely difficult to re- provision all the protection cycles whenever a new session arrives in order to minimize overall cost. Each provisioning takes large computation cost and complex network reconfiguration. Therefore, most of the work in the literature assume that established p-cycles should not vary with time or traffic. The authors in proposed three different routing algorithms along with link-based p-cycle protection scheme to deal with dynamic traffic. The results indicate that the proposed p-cycle based design performs better than SBPP in dense networks but worse in sparse networks. Protected Working Capacity Envelopes (PWCE) is another method to address dynamic traffic scenarios. It divides the entire network into two partitions: working and protection. Both static and dynamic traffic can be accommodated as long as the tot al traffic do not exceed the limit of working envelopes. Although some decent results have been shown in the literature, p-cycles still have such intrinsic weakness in dealing with dynamic traffic. If an incoming session whose end nodes do not lie on any cycle, it cannot be protected and a new cycle has to be constructed to protect this session, or the existing cycles must be reconfigured. An example shown in Figure 4.2 illustrates such weakness and also reveals the advantage of P2-cycles. In Fig. 4.2(a), session1 has been provisioned and protected by cycle C1(ECBFE). As session 2 arrives, the primary path of session 2 is provisioned as P2(ABCD). Under FIPP p-cycle scheme, cycle C1 cannot protect it and thus a new cycle C2(ABCDEFA) is constructed to protect it as shown in Fig.4.2(b). However, instead of building a new cycle, using P2-cycle approach we can add two PPLs (A,F) and (D,E) to connect the end nodes of P2 such that C1 can also provide a protection segment (AFED) for P2 as shown in Fig.4.2(c). Therefore, both sessions are protected by a P2-cycle with much less cost. Fig 1: P2-cycle deals With Dynamic Traffic III. Problem Statement In dynamic traffic scenarios, a WDM mesh network is given with network resources, such as the maximum number of wavelengths and the cost on each span. Each traffic request arrives to the network in a dynamic fashion such that it needs to be considered individually based on the current network status. The network status consists of the detailed working and available wavelengths on each span as well as all the accepted sessions and P2-cycles provisioned in the network. Given a network modelled as an undirected graph G = (V;E) where each undirected span e2E has a cost ce, the current network which includes the currently used and available wave- lengths on each span e, each accepted session l and their protection P2-cycles. Provision incoming unicast sessions against any single-link failure with the minimum overall blocking probability by using P2-cycle scheme. The assumptions required in this dynamic traffic case are the same as that in the static case. We design two heuristics to address the dynamic traffic case. In the first method, named Strict Routing Protection (SRP), the primary and protection path for each incoming session are computed separately. The primary path is firstly provisioned using Dijkstras shortest routing algorithm. Based on the primary path, either an existing P2-cycle or a new cycle is found to protect it. In the second method, named Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), the primary and protection paths of an incoming session are constructed jointly. The existing P2-cycles will be preferred to being used first. If no existing one is able to protect the session, a new cycle will be formed. We allow spare capacity sharing between different sessions to increase the capacity efficiency. A. Strict Routing Protection (SRP): The motivation of SRP is to always choose the shortest path to route the primary traffic in order to leave more spare capacity for protection, since the capacity used for primary path cannot be shared among different sessions. And then we check whether any available P2 cycle can be exploited to protect this newly established session. Once being set up, the cycle for a P2-cycle cannot be changed. The protection links that are added to PPL’s are one hop away from end nodes. The detail of the algorithm SRP described in following steps: 1. As a new session dl(sl; tl) arrives, establish the primary path fl between sl and tl under current network status by using Dijkstras algorithm. If it fails, the session is blocked; 2. Sort all the existing P2-cycles, cp â‚ ¬ C, in the increasing order of (dl; cp), which is One hop indicates that there exists a span in the network that connects a node to the cycle. If (dl; cp) = infinite 1 for all cp â‚ ¬ C, then no existing cycle is able to protect this new session. Thus, a new cycle needs to be constructed to protect dl. 3. For each existing protection cycle, cp, we construct a temporary graph G0, consisting of only the cycle spans of cp and all the spans connecting the source and destination nodes of l to the cycle . All the spans used by fl should be removed to ensure that its protection path is link-disjoint. Then, all the sessions protected by cp are checked and if an existing session in D can share the same cp with the new session l, we should make sure that either their primary paths or their protection paths are link-disjoint. we remove the protection paths of all the sessions in D whose primary paths are not link-disjoint with fl. If a protection path can still be found in the remaining G0 this protection path will be ql for l. Accordingly, the protection cycle is also determined, which should be updated if some PPLs are also used. 4. If every existing cp fails to protect dl, a new cycle will be constructed to protect it. We first attempt to find two diverse paths to form a cycle that is link-disjoint to fl. If such cycle cannot be found, then we find a path, ql, link-disjoint to fl and the cycle is formed by combining ql with fl. B. Flexible Routing Protection (FRP): Different from SRP, the flexible routing protection scheme considers primary and protection paths jointly for each arriving session. Instead of determining the primary path in advance, we examine each existing P2-cycle and find each potential protection path along the cycle that can connect the source and destination. For each potential protection path, we try to discover a primary path for it. If it succeeds, the session is accepted. Otherwise, a new cycle is constructed to protect the session. Flexible Routing Protection (FRP) Scheme Algorithm FRP is explained in following steps: Given a new session dl(sl; tl), all the available P2-cycles cp â‚ ¬ C are sorted in the increasing order of (dl; cp). For each available cp, list all the possible protection paths for dl. If the end nodes sl and tl are on the cycle, there are two possible segments along the cycle. If sl or(and) tl is not on the cycle, the path will be composed of parasitic links connecting sl or tl to the cycle and an on-cycle segment. We assume the average node degree in a given network is denoted by  µ. Each cycle can provide two on cycle segments between any pair of on-cycle nodes. Each end node, sl or tl, can be connected to the cycle by at most  µ PPLs given the node degree  µ. Hence, the average number of candidate protection paths provided by any P2-cycle For each candidate ql, run Dijkstras algorithm to find a primary path fl in G that is not only link-disjoint to ql but also link-disjoint with other primary paths protected by the same cycle if their protection paths are not link-disjoint. If it succeeds, we store the combination in a temporary set T, which is initialized as ;. After checking all the existing P2-cycles, we check set T and find the combination with minimum cost of fl. We recover the spans removed from G and update the network status. If no existing P2-cycle can be used to protect session dl, we use Bhandaris algorithm to find two link-disjoint paths between si and ti to form a new P2-cycle. If it fails, the session is blocked. Otherwise, the session is accepted and one of the paths (usually the shorter one) is used as the primary path fl, and the network is updated. IV. Results for Dynamic Traffic Based on two P2-cycle protection algorithms, SRP and FRP, proposed for provisioning dynamic requests, we conduct a simulation study to compare the performance of these algorithms under dynamic traffic. The networks used in the simulations are NSFNET, COST239 and USNET, in which USNET network, shown in Fig. 2 has 24 nodes and 43 edges and the average node degree is 3.58. Fig.2 USNET(24 nodes, 43 edges) In each simulation run, 1000 randomly generated unicast requests are loaded to the network sequentially and the reject ratio is recorded. The arrival of traffic follows Poisson distribution with  ¸ requests per second and the duration of an accepted connection is exponentially distributed with a mean of  ¹. The traffic load measured in Erlangs is ÃŽ »Ã‚ µ Each connection requires an entire wavelength to transmit the traffic. The maximum capacity on each network link is set to 16 wavelengths. Figures 3,4,and 5 show the blocking probability of dynamic traffic using SRP, FRP and FIPP p-cycle in NSFNET, USNET and COST239 networks, respectively. Each point in the figures is the average value of 200 simulation runs for each traffic load. For FIPP p-cycle scheme, the primary path of each arriving connection is provisioned first by using Dijkstras algorithm, and then protected by a p-cycle. Fig 3(a):Comparison of blocking probability in NSFNET(W=16) Fig 3(b):Comparison of blocking probability in COST239(W=16) Fig 3(c):Comparison of blocking probability in USNET(W=16) The results show that both SRP and FRP achieve lower blocking probability than FIPP under most of the network scenarios. In NSFNET, SRP achieves better performance than the other two schemes. In USNET, FRP outperforms SRP and FIPP under every scenarios. In COST239, however, SRP and FIPP achieves the same session blocking ratio, which is better than FRP, when the traffic load is relatively low. As the traffic load increases where the network is very saturated, FRP turns to perform better than SRP and FIPP. Based on the results, SRP performs better than other two schemes in relatively small and sparse networks at a low level of traffic load. FRP achieves the best performance in larger and denser networks, especially when the network is very saturated. One of the reason that SRP performs better in small and sparse networks, such as, NSF, is that to provision a session always using the shortest path will save some capacity for protection in a long run. Hence, more capacity can be used for protection such that more cycles can be established. in a network with high nodal degree, a cycle is more likely to reach a large group of nodes compared with a sparse network. In this case, FRP has a higher chance to protect a given session by using existing P2-cycles when network load is very high and the network is over saturated. Fig 4(a).Comparison of NOR in NSFNET(W=16) Fig 4(b).Comparison of NOR in cost239(W=16) Fig 4(c).Comparison of NOR in USNET(W=16) We also studied the average NOR of each accepted connection as in dynamic traffic scenarios and the results are shown in Figures 4(a),4(b) and 4(c). As expected, FIPP achieves the best solution with exact two node reconfigurations for each connection. Meanwhile, SRP also performs better than FRP in three networks. This reveals that connections protected by FRP use more PPLs than those used by SRP, which follows from the basic concept on which the two algorithms are based. It is worth noting that the average NOR achieved by SRP is almost stable below 2.4 in NSF and USNET and 2.7 in COST239. This indicates that most of the connections only need two no reconfigurations upon a network failure, especially in NSF and USNET. FRP has larger average NOR because it iterates every existing p-cycle in the network to protect each session and choose the one with minimum cost but not the one with minimum NOR. Shorter primary paths always results in longer protection paths such that more PPLs are us ed to protect each session. Therefore, based on the simulation results, SRP and FRP both achieves the lowest blocking probability than FIPP in most of the network scenarios considered and each scheme has advantage over the other in different network scenarios. SRP has better failure recovery performance than FRP. In dynamic traffic scenarios, the P2-cycle protection scheme is faster protection scheme provides an enhancement of capacity efficiency over the FIPP p-cycle with asmall change in the recovery time. VI. Extension The p2-cycles can be extended to link failures can be obtained. If one node can be failed then the data will be passed through alternative paths to reach to the destination. The p2 cycle can be defined as the original p-cycle The protection links that are added to PPL’s are one hop away from end nodes. For p2-cycles the network data can be efficiently transferred to destination which is one hop away from the nodes. V. Conclusions In this paper new p cycle protection is done in mesh based protection networks. By using the parasitic protection links (PPL), FIPP p-cycle can be extended through paths from end nodes which are one hop away from the failure nodes of p cycles. In dynamic traffic scenarios., in dynamic their are two algorithms are proposed Strict Routing Protection (SRP) and Flexible Routing Protection (FRP), to handle dynamic traffic demands in order to minimize the total number of blocked sessions. In dynamic traffic case the blocking probability less by using algorithms SRP and FRP comparing with FIPP p cycles. The numerical results shows the P2-cycle protection scheme is a more highly capacity efficient than the Failure Independent Path Protection p-cycle scheme in dynamic traffic case. the P2-cycle protection scheme is a more effective alternative of existent p-cycle-based and path-based protection schemes, Considering the factors of capacity efficiency and recovery speed References D. Zhou and S. Subramanian, â€Å"Survivability in optical networks,† IEEE Networks, 2012 P. Arijs, B. V. Caenegem, P. Demeester, and P. Lagasse, â€Å"Design of ring and mesh based WDM transport networks,† Optical Networks Magazine, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 27-41, 2011. S. Ramamurthy and B. Mukherjee, â€Å"Survivable WDM mesh networks. Part I-protection,† in Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM, vol. 2, pp. 744-751, 2011. S.krishna â€Å"Survivable WDM mesh network,†, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 870-883, 2009. P. H. Ho and H. T. Mouftah, â€Å"shared protection for optical networks,† IEEE Communications Magazine, pp. 97-103, February 2002. Bharat T. Doshi, Subrahmanyam Dravida, P. Harshavardhana, Oded Hauser, and Yufei Wang, â€Å"Optical Network Design and Restoration,† Bell Labs Technical Journal, JanuaryCMarch 1999 Caihui Ou, J. Zhang, H. Zhang, L. H. Sahasrabuddhe and B. Mukherjee, â€Å"New and Improved Ap-proaches for Shared-Path Protection in WDM Mesh Networks,† IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, VOL. 22, NO. 5, MAY 2004 Dahai Xu, Y. Xiong and C. Qiao, â€Å"Novel algorithms for shared-segment protection,† IEEE Journal of Selected Areas on Communications, v21. p1320-1331, 2003 Janos Tapolcai and et al. â€Å"A New Shared Segment Protection Method for Survivable Networks with Guaranteed Recovery Time,† IEEE Transactions on Reliability, Vol. 57, pp. 272-282, 2008. W.D D. Stamat, â€Å" Next Generation networks,† in Proc. IEEE ICC’ 98, 1998, pp. 537-543

Subverting the Conventional: Combining Genre in Kellys Donnie Darko Es

Subverting the Conventional: Combining Genre in Kelly's Donnie Darko While planning an evening at the cinema, individuals do not discuss the specific guidelines of genre while deciding the film of choice. A reason for seeing a Western is never because the genre has evolved from primarily racist films involving cowboys and Indians to movies that vindicate Indians and work toward demythologizing the old West. Similarly, broad generalizations of genre are constantly used to categorize film. Courtship-Romance Musicals or Rock Operas are often shuffled into the generic class of Musical, while the 1930’s films of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers, examples of Courtship-Romance Musicals, are in contrast to such films as Tommy or Jesus Christ Superstar, models of Rock Operas. Genre is the most important tool in deciding taste in film, yet most people never get past discussing whether to watch a Comedy or Drama. Perhaps this tendency is due to mainstream films, which rarely challenge audiences to make decisions about complex genres, as formula films h ave become an accepted form of entertainment. Cinema must look to Independent film then to help create new forms, specifically in genre. Donnie Darko, an Independent film directed by Richard Kelly, successfully poses questions about hybrid films and complex genres. Donnie Darko transcends the typical conventions of genre to redefine cinema and set a new precedence for independent filmmakers interested in breaking the rules of tradition. Before exploring the subversion of genre in Donnie Darko, a look at genre theories is necessary. The regulations of genre have changed throughout the history of film and theorists constantly have differing ideas about the new contortions genre for... ...lins, Jim. â€Å"Television and Postmodernism†. Channels of Discourse, Reassembled. The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 1992. Internet Movie Database. www.imdb.com. 1993. Kelly, Richard. Donnie Darko. Darko Productions, Inc, June 8, 2000. Klages, Mary. â€Å"Postmodernism†. http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/pomo.html). April 21, 2003. Lopez, Daniel. Films by Genre. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, 1993. Schatz, Thomas. â€Å"Film Genre and the Genre Film.† Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. Oxford University Press: New York, 1998. Schiff, Stephen. â€Å"Introduction: The Repeatable Experience.† They Went Thataway: Redefining Film Genres. Mercury House: San Francisco, 1994. Vogler, Christopher. The Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Storytellers and Screenwriters. London: Boxtree, 1996.

How do terrorist organizations succeed

Terrorism seeks to unify their population to the goal objectives and principles to stop hangs being caused by the government or outsiders or to institute their values and culture. Some terrorist groups based on religion like AH Qaeda have clear stated goals like driving out IIS troops or the destruction of another country that is not of their religion, like Israel. Attacks on property and using tampering hoaxes to cause expensive recalls of some products in the US is terrorism hitting at a target group economically.Terrorist groups may have more limited objectives that guide their actions or which they seek to achieve. These shorter term goals, of course, could aid the group in terms of achieving longer term objectives, and consider its performance to be successful if they simply survive to continue to pursue their longer term goals (Hoffman, 2002, p. 31 1 Just the perception that violence can work is enough as long as groups believe that such-?even if they are wrong-?they will be te mpted to adopt the technique in pursuance of their goals (Lutz, 2014, p. 17). Sing the information above of current terrorist activities a comparison to Strategic Quality Management may reveal why terrorist organizations succeed. There are five main variables in SUM with many parts, Purpose, Principles, Processes, People, and Performance. Five Up's of Terrorism Purpose: to pursue an objective through some form of violence to induce fear in an opponent. Terrorism requires some degree of secrecy in its preparation, as the inducement of fear is typically predicated on the element of surprise, but once the organization strikes public exposure is desired. Reminisces: As funny as this is going to sound the intellectual roots Of terrorism lie in three philosophical ideas which, ironically, are peculiarly Western: popular sovereignty, self-determination and ethical consequentiality (Phillips, 2014). Processes: Various strategies that may include political and reformist actions, cultural str uggle, strengthening of the community of believers, and through missionary work. If violence is not part this process it is not terrorism. People: Because anyone who believes in the principles and purpose of a terrorism group for whatever reason is why the group can be consistently effective.These people in their own working in their culture are not bad. It is very simple: if Robin Hood steals and keeps all the goodies, then it is a crime If Robin Hood steals from the rich and gives the goodies to the poor, then he would be a terrorist to one side and a hero to the other side. Performance: Performance is based on the purpose of each organization. From performance to purpose represents the feedback mechanism for guiding an organization toward their objectives (Prior, White, & Tombs, 2007, up. 1-5). With terrorist groups after action the objective may not be reached, but any results still works in their favor.

In what ways is the concept of gender useful in the study of ancient history?

In antiquity gender was a defining feature of life, we can note that it affected the way society was structured, specifically in the Athenian ‘polis', as well as public events, such as those associated with religious cults. Gender was also influential in politics, especially that of the Romans. Moreover, it is through gender that we can observe the general ancient view towards women, found throughout numerous literary sources and archaeological remains. Firstly, there is a strong link between gender and the Athenian ‘polis', which was commonly considered to be ‘male dominated'. 1 From an early age male and female youths were polarised, so that males were educated professionally, with a strong emphasis on completing sports at the ‘palaestrai' and ‘gymnasia', then they were sent away to complete their military service. In contrast, women were denied no more than basic schooling. However they were introduced into society through religious cults. It is through education that the classical Athenians erected a prominent division between the sexes, in order to prepare the youths for their roles in later life-men for leadership in state and military affairs, women for more subordinate roles. For example, archaeological evidence suggests that young men were groomed for prominent positions in the state, that is, pitchers have been found that illustrate boys celebrating the festival, ‘Anthesterion', ‘the flower month', by sampling wine and participating in crawling races. The former would have been a simplistic pre-taster for male youths of a ‘symposium', philosophical sessions intertwined with heavy drinking periods, exclusively for male citizens. The playwrights Plato and Aristophanes recognised their importance in the ‘polis', as it was for affluent male citizens. In Aristophanic comedies he frequently alludes to scenes of inebriation and obscenity mixed with intervals of learned opinions. The latter would have prepared the youths for athletic competitions. Keuls' suggests that it is through these activities young boys were instilled, ‘with the norms of competitiveness and male privilege'. 2 In comparison, Greek women were initiated into society through religious roles, specifically those associated with chastity, labour and submission. The cult of Athena was particularly important, in which a robe known as a ‘peplos' was dedicated to the goddess that had been especially woven for the occasion. It was then presented to her either by two or four noble girls, known as ‘arrhephoroi', ‘bearers of sacred objects'. Scenes from this cult can be found on sections of the Parthenon frieze (440BC-432BC), detailing events such as the folding of the ‘peplos' by the ‘Archon Basileus', chief magistrate, helped by a young child. This was a significant affair because the cult of Athena portrayed the characteristics sought desirable in each sex. That is, she represented the ‘male patriarchal ethos',3 through a wild war dance, the ‘pyrrhic dance', which was performed by armed dancers. This highlights, through the festival that males were associated with war and had a responsibility to protect the ‘polis'. On the other hand, Athena also represented the female ethos, by emphasising the necessity of hard work and chastity through the tasks of spinning and weaving, which were given prestigious status', through the ritual of the ‘peplos'. Athenian women were associated with passive tasks, illustrating their subordination to men within the ‘polis'. It is also significant that religious festivals structured the female hierarchy. We have already noted that it was only noble girls who could become ‘arrhephoroi', whereas in other cults, such as that of Artemis at Brauron, all girls could participate in the rituals. Just as the female hierarchy needed cult festivals to differentiate between the varying classes, the male hierarchy was determined by society-the ‘polis' and the military. For example, Xenophon, in the ‘Anabasis', highlights the importance and influence of the head of the army, the ‘hegemon', compared to less important positions in the military. That is, when a ‘manteis', a divine interpreter, attempts to slander Xenophon-in this case he is acting as the ‘hegemon'-by suggesting that he would have founded a new city without consulting his troops, Xenophon retorts: ‘Silanus gave me his answer on the most important point, namely, that the appearance of the victim was propitious. He had to since he was aware that I myself, because of always being present at sacrifices had some experience in these matters. ‘ 4 This illustrates, in general, that in warfare, sacrifices were undertaken or overseen by those in commanding positions, such as the ‘hegemon', because they influenced the state. Those in less significant positions in the military had a minimal influence in the running of the state. Thus, highlighting that the military and state were active influences in determining the male hierarchy. So far, we can note that education and cult festivals were influenced by gender, illustrating the importance of studying it in ancient history, as it gives us a fuller picture of ancient Greek society. Furthermore, the perception of the sexes can be seen to vary vastly, Xenophon highlights this in his ‘Oikonomikos', when he determines that men were built for war because their bodies could endure toil and hardship, whereas women were made for domestic work. 5 Another ancient scholar, Ischomachos, comments that the nature of men and women's mind also differ, as women are considered to be more susceptible to emotions and show a lack of restraint. Physical and psychological features influenced ancient Greek scholars into stereotyping the sexes and thus explaining why each gender sought different roles in society. In consideration to the cult of Athena, we can note that the study of mythology is also relevant to the concept of gender and its effects on society. That is, the ‘Panathenaic' procession was based on the myth of the origin of Ericthonius, who was associated with Athens. Hephaistos spilt semen on Athena's lap, which she wiped off with some wool, but consequently Ericthonius was born. The child was then given to Cecrops' daughters, but two of them, Herse and Aglauros, looked at the baby, despite Athena's warning that they should not. This myth emphasises the importance of women as child bearers and nurturers in society. The relevance of the wool can be associated with textile making, an occupation that was encouraged in young women. Likewise the cult of Artemis illustrated to women the importance of chastity, as the myth behind her cult warns them that promiscuity is an undesirable and unacceptable value. Artemis punishes her nymph, Kallisto, who had been raped by Zeus, by changing her into a bear, who is consequently hunted and killed by her own son. The Greeks used the myths as moral paradigms, warning women against unacceptable behaviour in the ‘polis'. Furthermore, Artemis was also concerned with childbirth, as clothes were dedicated to her at Brauron. Keuls' comments that this cult, ‘may have been the most effective way of instilling in females the ethos that male society required of them. ‘ 6 In comparison, if the cult of Artemis and Athena portrayed ideal female virtues that were affable for their role in the ‘polis', then the cult of Theseus represented ideal virtues for the Athenian male citizen. He was the archetypal male hero, as he saved Athens and slaughtered the Minotaur. In a social context, he had protected the ‘polis' and by militant means had killed a foreign being that threatened the well being of the state-actions that were expected of all male Athenians. Funerals were also a very significant event within the ‘polis' and the concept of gender greatly influenced its organisation. Women played a vital role in the ‘prothesis', the procession preceding the actual funeral, when the body was placed on a bier and was surrounded by mourners. It was the role of the women to lament- the more intense they seemed, the more honoured the dead appeared. Firstly, in connection with lamentation, we can note that women played an integral role in this procession, as they allowed men to keep up an austere appearance. This allowed the males to protect their masculine front, as they could refrain form outwardly expressing their grief. We have already observed, from ancient scholars, such as Xenophon, that only certain characteristics were deemed acceptable for men. Plaques and funeral vases illustrate the different roles performed during the ‘prothesis' by men and women. For example, a funeral pot of the late geometric period depicts men in processions of armed warriors or on horseback. 7 It is notable that they remain untearful, when compared to the numerous figurines of women in lamentable positions. The men honour the dead by highlighting the prestige of dying whilst in battle. Two ideals of mourning were set up to protect the social structure-women lament due to their lack of restraint of their emotions, emphasising their fragile characters, deeming them unfit for leadership. Whereas, men retain their dignity through their restraint and their passive role in the ‘prothesis'. Furthermore, funerals allowed aristocratic families to present their rank and power in society. Therefore, the lamentation was a reflection of the family's status. Hans Van Wees states that, ‘tears were a sign of respect to the dead†¦ ears of women played a part in the power struggle of men. ‘ 8 This illustrates that women had a significant role in the society of men, but one that was manipulated to benefit the running of the state. Moreover, the emotions of the women became so severe, as they behaved as a medium, that Solon had to institute legislations to curtail their display, as women had resorted to lacerating their arms and other forms of self-mutilation. The concept of gender is also very noteworthy in ancient literature, as men and women were perceived very differently in comparison to their perception in the ‘polis'. For example, during the Homeric era, it was not uncommon to observe heroes crying, a characteristic that would later be associated with the ‘fairer sex'. We first see Odysseus on Calypso's island, weeping in despair to return home to Ithaca. 9 Likewise, Homer frequently alludes to Odysseus's wife, Penelope, crying. For instance, we observe her crying for her lost husband when she retrieves his bow for the suitors' competition. 10 Both of the genders display similar characteristics, which Homer's audience obviously found acceptable in men. This emphasises that the gap between the genders widened with the progression of society and the founding of the structure of the ‘polis'. A further example that illustrates this point can come from the medium of tragedy, as the perception of male literary figures had conformed to the opinions of the ‘polis'. That is, male characters are portrayed as more restrained towards their emotions, in Aeschylus' ‘Agamemnon', the male king shows a considerable deal of restraint when Clytaemnestra offers him the sacred carpets to walk on. He states: ‘This-you treat me like a woman†¦ ive me the tributes of a man†¦ '11 Agamemnon displays his lack of excitement towards the frivolity of walking on ‘nice' tapestries that obviously would have appealed to a woman's nature. In the Homeric era, heroes appreciated niceties-Odysseus is bathed in perfume when he gets to Phaecia, there are constant allusions to Paris preening and primping himself and we are frequently reminded of his good looks. This illustrates the progression of the male status from the Heroic age to classical Athens. Briefly, we can note that Homeric heroes took an active grieving role in funerals. Achilles pours grimy dust on his face and beasts his breast, accompanied by his handmaidens; then Homer states that: ‘Antilochus mourned with him, letting the tears fall†¦ '12 Furthermore, this reiterates the different characteristics found in the male persona of the heroic age, rather than the age of the ‘polis'. However, we should also observe that the Homeric heroes were not completely without restraint, they just depicted less moderation than would have been acceptable for later Greeks. For example, the Trojans are commanded not to weep whilst collecting their dead bodies from the battlefield, which they do. They show a determined self-control, perhaps not as noted in the Homeric women, such as Odysseus' wife, Penelope. Furthermore, it is also through tragedy that we can note the progression of the perception of ancient women. In reference to Aeschylus' ‘Agamemnon', it has been observed that Clytaemnestra is portrayed with masculine attributes, as it is she who plots and kills her husband, with an axe in the bath. Her lover, Aegisthus, states to the chorus: ‘The treachery was the woman's work, clearly. '13 In the prologue, the watchman comments: ‘That woman -she manoeuvres like a man. '14 Firstly, Clytaemnestra has overstepped the divide that marked the different statuses of men and women in the ‘polis', on account of her masculine behaviour. Aeschylus, through tragedy, has illustrated that if women are not supervised within society, the social structure will collapse, as they are lead by their emotions. This would have highlighted the importance of the ‘kyrios', who acted as a guardian to Athenian women, to keep them in check within the ‘polis'. Moreover, this illustrates the common perception of women, as tragic heroines are often perceived as being manipulative, treacherous and unfaithful. This is emphasised by the character of Clytaemnestra, as well as Electra, who later persuades her brother, Orestes, to kill their mother, in Aeschylus' ‘Eumenides' and Euripides ‘Electra'. These characteristics illustrate that women are unworthy to lead the state, and highlights the insistence that they remain inferior to men within the social structure, maintaining their role in family matters. In Aristophanic comedies, such as ‘Lysistrata', women were also depicted as being drunkards and sex fiends, qualities that were associated with slaves. This is noteworthy, as slaves were considered not to be wholly free and without possessing any rights within the ‘polis', such as voting. Furthermore, slaves and women were also both low down in the social structure. Aristotle in his ‘Politics', stated that women were, ‘slaves by nature'. This demonstrates the lack of freedom that women possessed, highlighting their seclusion within classical Athens. The majority of the time, women were physically kept within the home-apart from when they participated in particular public events-to keep them subordinate, in a social context. Furthermore, according to Solon15, if a woman was in the company of men all the time, she would not want to get married. Thus she would be defying her role as a life giver and producer of heirs, and so she would be disrupting her status within the ‘polis'. In contrast, in the heroic age of Homer, women were given a considerable amount of freedom, for example, we see Helen with Priam, on the walls of Troy, pointing out to all the different Greek warriors. Moreover, Penelope, in the Odyssey, acts as the hostess at the banquet of the suitors, totally surrounded by men. We can see that the seclusion of women became more intense with the founding of the ‘polis', which brought along a greater need to categorise the genders. The concept of gender is also very significant when studying the politics of ancient Rome. Roman historians of the imperial era have recorded the great influence of women on particular male emperors. For example, the historian, Tacitus, in his ‘Annals', records the influence of Nero's mother, Agrippina the Younger, on his political career. It is she who initiates the poisoning of her husband, Claudius, and his son, Britannicus, so that Nero can usurp the power of the empire. Roman coins depict her bust, alongside that of her son's, displaying that she is ruling with him. It is significant that her role becomes less influential as Nero grows up and adopts more power. This is again illustrated through the medium of the coins, as we can note the gradual removal of her image from the obverse of the coins. The influence of his mother was so strong that he could only be freed from it, by attempting to murder her, through a collapsing boat. Thus, this demonstrates that imperial women dominated their male associates and played a leading role within in the running of the state. However, we should note that they still remained in the background, ruling behind their male relatives, as Rome was a male dominated state. Clark suggests that, ‘women might, then, have considerable influence and interests outside their home and families, but they were acting from within their families to affect a social system managed by men: their influence was not to be publicly acknowledged. '16 However, it has also been recorded that other imperial women had infiltrated the very male event of patronage. Octavia had acted or had interceded with male relatives as a patron, also, Messalina and Agrippina the Younger, were the patrons of Claudius' freedmen, such as Narcissus. This highlights the prestigious role of women in the empire. It is also significant that they were involved in particular public affairs, demonstrating that the social structure of Rome was gradually changing form being solely a male establishment, to a state outwardly influenced by both genders. Furthermore, Dio records that the senate honoured Livia with an arch as she had helped many senatorial children in times of need. 7 Likewise, the public recognition of Livia's role in the running of the state was acknowledged by the senate. However, it is important to note that the prominent role of women during the imperial period was not considerably favoured by all. Fischler comments that many men considered ‘a good emperor to have had wives and mothers that he could control and who never overstepped the boundaries set by convention'. 18 For example, Tiberius refused honours for his mother, Livia, because he did not want to seem to be influenced by her actions. Women may have been more prominent in the political sphere but it was not fully approved by the public opinion, which was aired by the majority of men. The significant role of women was fully acknowledged by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who recognised the importance of women as figures of a new political regime. They represented the move from the Republican era to the Imperial era, as they were significant members of his dynasty. Fischler goes onto observe that ‘women were symbols of the imperial order. '19 The society of the Republic was less tolerant of the presence of women in the public eye. They had few rights within the state, such as, they were not allowed to vote or, as Valerius Maximus records, appear or act in courts20 and were generally under the ‘potestas of the ‘paterfamilias'. However, unlike the Greek ‘polis' women were not secluded from society, as they were allowed to own property and divorce their husbands. There were two types of marriage- that of ‘cum manu', in which the woman remained under her father's rule, as he even had the power to end her marriage; or that of ‘sine manu', in which women were allowed to own their own property an divorce their husbands. The former type of marriage was common in the early Republic and the latter, in the late Republic. This illustrates the progression of women's freedom in society and their further prominence in the public eye. The perception of gender and the way it affected the structure of society can be noted in forms of literature, such as satire. For example, Juvenal, who was writing either under the emperor, Trajan or Domitian, perceives the progression of women in the public sphere as a bad thing. That is, women had transgressed the divide between the genders, as they had adopted masculine roles in society, such as acting in political matters, demonstrated in Tacitus' portrayal of Agrippina. Furthermore Juvenal goes onto condemn the public sexuality of women and the growing effeminacy of men. In a social context. He highlights the breakdown of the social structure of the Roman society, that is, he considers the sexes to have changed roles and transgressed their divisions, which had given certain roles to men and to women in order to structure society. For example, he describes the ‘whore empress' coming home from the brothel to the Imperial palace. 21 Furthermore, his female persona attacks males for preferring homosexuality and states that overseas people are laughing at their effeminacy. 22 In contrast, he frequently extols the old virtues of chastity in women and praises the good old days, when men worked in fields and completed other masculine tasks23. Thus highlighting the change of roles in gender, on account of a changing society. In conclusion, we can argue that the concept of gender is extremely important when studying ancient history, as it played a significant role in defining the structure of society. The progression of society, both Greek and Roman, can also be marked by the changing perceptions of each gender, found in abundant literary sources and archaeological material. These sources of evidence make it possible to study gender, however we should also take into account, when using literature as evidence, some external influences. For example, when consulting tragedy or comedy. For the perception of Greek women, we should note that the playwrights exaggerated the characteristics of figures, for dramatic effects. That is to say, in the ‘polis', not all Greek women were alcoholics with a sex addiction, as portrayed in Aristophanic comedies. Likewise, from Juvenal's satires we cannot assume that all Roman women were promiscuous, due to the degeneration of their social structure. The ancient writers were assuming the ‘worst-case-scenarios', highlighting what would happen without a social structure in society. However, there is truth behind these pieces of literature, as the authors had to base their work on realism, so that their audiences could relate to their work. Furthermore, we should take into consideration the genre that the author was writing for, for example, Tacitus was considered to be a ‘silver age' writer, thus his writing would have portrayed characteristics of that type. Thus, his work is macabre and sombre; therefore his portrayals of his characters would reflect that style. Likewise, archaeological evidence should be considered with care, as depictions on pots and vases are left to our own personal interpretation.

Tangled Essays - Tangled Characters, Rapunzel, Mother Gothel

Tangled Essays - Tangled Characters, Rapunzel, Mother Gothel Tangled English 011 29 March 2013 Tangled Have you ever wondered what Disney films are really showing to children? In the article Someday My Prince Will Come, Marcia Lieberman explains the negative impact on children from classic Disney films. The negative messages Lieberman talks about are the girl always depends on the hero, the willingness to change themselves, and the idea that if you are beautiful you get through life easy. However, the Disney film Tangled defies this article. Tangled starts off the same as any other Disney film; a nice, strong, brave man saves the damsel in distress, but then it changes by not following the clich, negative messages and sends out a positive message. Although Tangled and Cinderella have a similar plot, Tangled portrays a better gender message for young children because of the untraditional role reversal and the inspirational message. The plot of Tangled is just like any other plot that Disney comes up with. Girl gets into some kind of trouble; handsome male comes to save her, and they live happily ever after. But, the difference with Tangled is that it starts off as a clich, but drives away from the fairytale norm. In the movie, theres a magical flower that everyone desires to have. The queen of the kingdom had a special baby girl named Rapunzel. She has had magical powers since birth. Her long blonde hair glows when she sings and has the ability to heal all wounds. However, things take a turn when Mother Gothel kidnaps Rapunzel just to stay young. Rapunzel was locked in the tower and could never leave. Until one day Flynn Rider steals a crown from his partners and is forced to run towards the tower. Not knowing if anyone was there, he climbs up into the tower and meets Rapunzel for the first time. The two go out on a wild adventure that would make them closer than ever. During their journey they both learn to gr ow more into each other. Throughout the movie Tangled shows a reversal of roles that strays away from the traditional story of damsel in distress. Classic Disney movies have a big part of gender roles, which are a set of behaviors that indicate, specifically the image projected by a person that identifies his or her femaleness or maleness. Stereotypical gender roles in Disney movies teach individuals behavioral and associational patterns that illustrate appropriate behavior for each sex and provides a way to predict the outcome or fate according to sex. Rapunzel is a princess, who was kidnapped by Mother Gothel. She lived her entire life locked inside a hidden tower, but she is no damsel in distress. She is a girl with very long golden hair. She is a girl who fills her days with art, books, and imagination. Rapunzels true destiny lies outside of the lonely tower. She always obeyed Mother Gothel by keeping her magical hair hidden. Flynn Rider is a thief, who discovers Rapunzel in the tower. He is a tall and well-built with short, dark hair. He is an experienced thief; he skilled in escaping the authorities, hiding out, and steal ing right from peoples noses. He later becomes the husband of Rapunzel. Tangled is a much different movie compared to Cinderella even though they were made by the same company. Cinderella has a message of that a woman should be abused from most of her life until she is saved. The woman should be dependent on someone else instead of herself. In Cinderella she depends on her fairy godmother to save her at first, and then she depends on the prince to save her instead of working on her own to save herself. In Tangled Rapunzel is very independent and even is able to leave her tower. She rescues Flynn multiple times throughout the movie. She shows that women can easily be independent and even be the rescuer. Additionally, the focus on beauty sends another negative message to young girls. Beauty is associated with goodness, and ugliness is associated with evil. Rapunzel is beautiful and sweet. For example, she was able to help the men at the bar and think back and show emotion by asking them if they ever had a dream. She was not

Police Force essays

Police Force essays Twenty-seven uniformed officers witnessed this incident from various law enforcement agencies. None of the officers (those individuals who are supposed to protect citizens) made any effort to stop this abuse.(LA Times March 19, 1991 p. A20). The level of escalation even went so far as to call in a police helicopter! (Ironically, the lights from the helicopter actually improved the lighting for the videotape.) The King beating brought complaints from the Mayor of Los Angeles Tom Bradley and national attention from civil rights leaders. Many believed the beating was racially motivated and extended from a pattern of abusive behavior by police towards blacks. (McDonald 1991) This act of violent behavior from police officers has brought many questions to the national table, such as: Is police brutality on the rise? Is the police hiding behind their badges? How does the public view police brutality? How can we raise public awareness? Is police brutality on the rise? This is an importan t question to ask ourselves and the police departments. A study in seventeen counties in Northern California indicated that in the past two years excessive force and neglect has resulted in at least seven deaths and fatal injury. (Saari, no date) In fact a nine-month period from August 26, 1996 to June 29, 1997 seven citizens died as a result of police brutality. Sonoma County California currently has the highest rate of custody deaths in the bay area (Saari). In many cases the situation (according to police accounts) has rapidly escalated to a point where police feel the need to use deadly force. Many of those committing crimes are mentally ill. The Sonoma County Alliance for the Mentally Ill advises that police officers in confrontations with people experiencing psychiatric episodes: Speak calmly and quietly Slow down the pace Be willing to repeat yourself Do not try to hurry a resolution This increase i...